The Psychology Of Team Sports

The Psychology Of squad up genetic mutationsHardy and G pass, (1997) outlined the importance of squad building shade in magnetic variation when they suggested whether a police squad is successful or not is frequently attri neverthelessed to the potentness of their squad counterfeit. To develop the effective team many team building programs attempt to append ropiness amongst a collection as team tackiness can affect performance (Eys et al, 2005). Different aras of sort dynamics can be used to increase team coherency, this section of the report depart revolve around on the research conducted on leadership, role am big(a)uity and close associationting.Leadership is an important component for underdeveloped cohesion in athleticss teams (Carron et al, 2005). It has been suggested that effective leadership is a vital contributor to member satisfaction (Reimer Chellandurai, 1995). Leadership behaviours and styles adopted can stick a big impact on team cohesion and subsequent performance. (Carron et al. 2005)An early field of view, investigating the congressship between (the coaches) leadership behaviours and team cohesion within sports teams, found adopting a democratic style produced higher levels of task cohesion (Lee et al. 1993). In addition, a variety of studies reported that an increase in favorable support behaviour increase task cohesion (Lee et al. 1993, Westre Weiss, 1991 Riemar Chellandurai, 1995). One study, Riemar Chellandurai, (1995) went further and examined the leadership behaviours preferred and perceived by players depending on their position. They found defensive athletes perceived and preferred higher levels of social support and democratic and autocratic styles then the offensive athletes. They also found member satisfaction was greatly influenced by social support.More recent research has tended to focus on the role of the athlete as a leader within the team, for example, the captain. Research has suggested athlete leaders are in fact reform than coaches at administering leadership behaviours, such as a democratic decision making style and social support (Loughead and Hardy, 2005). Whats much, further research has been conducted to assess antithetical types of athlete leadership. For example, Loughead et al, (2006) discovered two types of leader within a sports team a team captain and a peer leader (supplies leadership to at least 2 team members). In addition, Eys et al, (2007) investigated how 218 athletes perceived the athlete leader distributions within their sports teams. Their results suggest that members of a team are more satisfied when 3 leadership roles (social, task, external) are performed to the same extent regardless of how many are leaders present within the team.Carron et al, (2005) identified one-on-one clarification of role responsibilities to be one of the most important factors in sport. The vast majority of research on role states in team sports has been on role equi vocalness (role clarity) and its relation to performance using the conceptual model proposed by Beauchamp et al, (2002).The effect role ambiguity had on both task cohesion and task self force was investigated by Eys Carron (2001). They concluded that members within basketball teams who were unsure of their role responsibilities, reported lower levels of attraction towards the team and felt their team was less unified in their task approach.Another study, Eys et al, (2003) demonstrated that team members perceptions of role ambiguity decreased throughout a competitive season. Additionally, although perceptions of role ambiguity are individual, members of a team could share the same beliefs. Finally, new editions to the team are more probably to perceive role ambiguity compared to experienced members of the team at the start of the season. Nevertheless, as the authors suggested, the results of this study ordain be difficult to apply to other team sport views (e.g age company, com petitive standards) as it was undertaken on a homogeneous universe (Eys et al, 2003).It has also been reported that greater role ambiguity and role clarity could affect an athletes self susceptibility, satisfaction and performance. These factors could not only affect the individual but the team as a whole (Forsyth, 1999). Beauchamp Bray (2001) investigated university athletes perceptions of role ambiguity and role conflict among their respective sports teams. Results demonstrated that members who perceived greater levels of role ambiguity and conflict had lower levels of efficacy and were less inclined to perform their role responsibilities. This is concurrent with Bandura, (1997) who suggested a decrease in persistence and travail will happen if the athlete is unclear of their role. The associated performance is also likely to suffer (Bandura, 1997) as indicated by Beauchamp et al, (2002) who found a negative relationship between role efficacy and role performance. Additionally , the relationship between leadership and role ambiguity could prove further understanding of this subject (Eys et al, 2003).The more detailed, circumstantial and challenging yet real a goal is the more effective it will be (Gould, 1993). However, research found team members often set themselves unclear and generally descriptive goals (Brawley et al, 1992).In addition, when Dawson et al, (2002) interviewed varsity athletes to determine their goal setting habits, they found team members set personal goals and their respective teams had group goals. Research has indicated that team as opposed to individual goals are better for improving team sport performance (Johnson et al, 1997). The authors demonstrated how subjects who set team goals improved their bowling performance in cricket, yet subjects who set personal goals did not.The addition of team goals to a group has proven successful in the past. Lee (1988) found that adding team goals to female hockey teams had a affirmative eff ect on team performance. This was concurrent with Senecal et als, (2008) study of female basketball players. Over a season long preventative, they found team cohesion significantly increased in the intervention group compared to the control groups when they utilised team goal setting. Furthermore, Mellalieu et al. (2006) found a goal setting program with professional rugby players to stimulate a positive impact on performance. It has been suggested that goal setting can enhance team cohesion by providing a team focus (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997). Focusing on one goal can improve group communication, commitment and satisfaction, improving group cohesion and subsequent performance (Carron Spink, 1993)Nevertheless, on that point put one over not been many studies carried out in sport that have investigated the effect of team goals on team performance (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997), with the majority of studies conducted outside of the sport setting (Weingart, 1992).Team building int erventionA team goal setting program was chosen as the intervention topic to improve team cohesion (see appendix a). Early research from Widemeyer et al, (1992), as cited in Widemeyer Ducharme (1997) found athletes felt having a team goal was the most significant contributor to task cohesion from a choice of 35 variables. More recently, Stevens Bloom (2003) found team goals to be the most effective topic to utilise in a team building intervention. The following team building intervention applied principles from Eys et al, (2006) in Senecal et al. (2008), Widemeyer Ducharme, (1997) and Widemyer McGuire, (1996) in Carron et al, (2005).Step 1 development Long term goalsFirstly, the athletes and coaches will work together to regulate the long term goal of the team (Kyllo Landers, 1995) for example, achieve a top 3 position in the league. This will take get during an all day workshop during the first week of pre season. The athletes will work in short sub groups of 3-4 and talk of long team goals for the team (Eys et al, 2005). at once the sub groups have decided a long term goal, the coach will write the goals on the white board and the team will plow together (Dale Wrisberg, 1996), narrowing down to one specific and measurable goal (Gould, 1993). The Long term goal will then be send offed in the changing rooms for the remainder of the season, to help motivate the athletes (Weldon Weingart, 1988).Step 2 developing dead term outcome goalsTo achieve the long term goal, specific and measurable (Carron et al, 2005) short term goals will be set as beatping stones (Kingston Hardy, 1997), for example, win the adjacent 3 out of 5 games. To decide the goals, the coach will remind the players of last seasons statistics (eg. Wins, passing gamees, league position) (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997). After the long term goals are decided, the players will use these statistics and repeat the same procedure as in step 1 by getting into subgroups (Eys et al, 2005). On ce discussed, 5-6 specific and achievable short term outcome goals will be decided (Widemeyer Mcguire, 1996)Step 3 Developing short term performance goalsIn addition, the players will set performance goals during a second all day workshop, 2 weeks into the pre season. The use of multiple goal setting strategies has been shown to be more beneficial to performance (Filby et al, 1999). For this intervention, the players will only be working towards team goals as previous research has suggested team goals are better for improving team performance (Johnson et al, 1997) and that individually hidden goals have no significant impact on performance (Kyllo Landers, 1995).The performance goals will be decided through the use of performance profiling (Dale Wrisberg, 1996). This will be a group profile for the team as a whole. Firstly, the players will discuss what characteristics they believe a successful football team has. The players will express their opinions to the coach while they wri te them down onto a white board. The characteristics will convey to be specific, so if there too general they will be re-evaluated until clearer. When the athletes and coach are happy that at least ten appropriate characteristics are on the white board, the players will individually and anonymously write all the characteristics off the white board on to paper. Examples of characteristics could be putting 100% effort into every training session and game, winning over 80% of their aerial battles. The players will then proceed to evaluate their teams characteristics between a scale of 1-10, with 1 being weak and 10 being strong. Once completed, each(prenominal) characteristic will be calculated as a mean. The lowest mean scads will be the areas developed into performance goals that the team will aim to achieve. Additionally, the coach will use the same procedure to demonstrate their perceptions of the team. At the adjoining group meeting the team will discuss the results (lowest sc ores) and agree on 5-6 performance goals to improve their perceived weaknesses (Dale Wrisberg, 1996).When the specific performances goals are established, the team needs to decide realistic yet challenging target levels for these goals (eg. more than 5 shots on target per game) (Carron et al, 2005). To make sure their realistic and challenging the coach will once again provide the athletes with statistics from last season (eg. shots on goal, tackles won). The sub group procedure used in step 1 and 2 will be utilise to achieve this (Eys et al, 2005). After negotiations the team will conclude the appropriate targets for their team. This process will be repeated during the middle and the end point of the competitive schedule (Dale Wrisberg, 1996) so that the performance goals can be updated throughout the seasonStep 4 Monitoring and valuation of short and long term goalsThe Long and short term goals will be continually monitored throughout the intervention. Prior to every match a nd practice session (1 of each per week) throughout the pre and competitive season the team will be reminded of the goals they set for themselves in attempt to provide a focus for the team and help motivate the players (Weldon Weingart, 1988). To do this team goals will be written on the white board in the changing rooms, the coach will then highlight the importance of these goals during their team talk.In addition, after each match team statistics (eg. goals scored and corners won in that game) and the statistics for the agreed performance indices will be posted in the changing rooms. The team members can then look at the statistics and measure their progress towards their target levels.Step 5 Updating team goalsAfter every 3-5 games, the coach and players will work with the intervention specialist on evaluating and possibly updating the team goals if needed, eg. Removing or adding performance goals and changing the target level (Senecal et al, 2008). This will be achieved using their performance statistics from the previous 3-5 games and the characteristics of their next 3-5 opponents (Widemeyer McGuire, 1996). Again, the procedure demonstrated in step 1 will be used to administer the changes.Stage 6 Praise continued progress toward team goalsDuring the intervention the coach will continually openly praise his team when they do well and progress toward their team goals, feedback on goal progress may enhance the use of team goals (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997).Step 7 post intervention check.1 week after the intervention was completed A 5 question, post intervention questionnaire (Stevens Bloom, 2002) was completed by every player to assess the effectiveness of the intervention (Senecal et al, 2008). In addition, 1 and 3 months after the intervention is completed interviews will be conducted with each player (Stevens Bloom, 2003). Players will be instructed to relax and openly discuss their opinions of the TBIs effectiveness.Critical analysis of team buildi ng interventions in sportTeam building interventions are designed to improve group performance by increasing group cohesiveness (Carron et al, 1997). However previous studies have produced mixed results on the effectiveness of team building interventions (TBI) on improving cohesion. Some were effective (Voight Callaghan, 2001 Senecal et al, 2008 McClure Foster 1991 Mellalieu et al, 2006) and some were unsuccessful (Prapavessis et al, 1996 Cogan Petrie, 1996 Stevens Bloom, 2002). One study, Steven Bloom (2003) found their TBI to be effective during the pre season but not throughout the competitive season.Nevertheless, Brawley Paskevich (1997) have highlighted many methodological concerns with the research conducted using team building interventions. For example, the pre-test, post-test experimental design active by various TBI (Voight Callaghan 2001 Senecal et al, 2008 Prapevessis et al, 1996 Stevens Bloom, 2002 Mellalieu et al, 2006) makes it difficult to determine the effe ctiveness of the intervention. Although three of these studies were effective (Voight Callaghan 2001 Senecal et al, 2008 Mellalieu et al, 2006), due to the absence seizure of measures throughout the competitive season, although likely it makes it difficult to determine whether or not it was the TBI that improved performance or outside interference, questioning the validity of their results. For example, Brawley Paskevich, (1997) suggested leadership change a less competitive calendar or the loss of an unsettling member could have all influenced team cohesion independent of the TBI.Some studies that employed a quasi experimental design (Cogan Petrie, 1996 Stevens Bloom, 2003) reported their TBI to be toothless at improving team cohesion. The design could be the reason for their lack of significant results. A quasi experimental design rarely includes random designation making it difficult to determine whether factors such as differences in coaching style and team atmosphere af fected the results (Stevens Bloom, 2003). Randomly assigning members to different teams, allows experimenters to respect which treatment of the TBI infers change (Brawley Paskevich, 1997). One study employed an experimental design (Mclure Foster, 1991). The results of their study suggested their intervention was effective at increasing cohesion among gymnasts. The positive results of their study could be attributed to the experimental design as this method includes random assignment. Therefore they were able to notice a difference in cohesion amongst randomly charge athletes without interference from some of the problems mentioned above.Furthermore, some studies did not utilise a control group, one was effective at improving cohesion (Voight Callaghan 2001) another was ineffective (Bloom Stevens 2002). The absence of a control group however, questions the validity of Voight Callaghans (2001) results. As suggested by Brawley Paskevich, (1997) it is difficult to establish whe ther their TBI was actually the cause for the improvement in performance as there were no control or placebo groups to compare the results to. In addition, as Stevens Bloom (2002) did not include a control group, whether or not cohesion levels would have decreased over the season and therefore whether or not the intervention was helpful to the team is unclear.Additionally, the duration of the TBI is another methodological concern identified by Brawley Paskevich (1997). It has been suggested interventions are fairly slow processes (French Bell, 1984) and at least 1 season of a TBI is needed to produce results of any significance (Brawley Paskevich, 1997). Therefore the results of studies that lasted less than a season (Prapavessis et al, 1996 Mellalieu et al, 2006) may not portray the long-term set up of the intervention. Studies that have lasted at least a season (Senecal et al, 2008 Mclure Foster 1991 Stevens Bloom, 2002 Voight Callaghan, 2001 Stevens Bloom, 2003 Cogan Pe trie, 1996) are more likely to provide clearer results. In addition, although the vast majority some of these studies administered post intervention checks (Cogan Petrie, 1996 Senecal et al, 2008 Mellalieu et al, 2006 Stevens Bloom Voight Callaghan, 2001 Prapevessis et al, 1996 Stevens Bloom, 2002) none of these studies administered any questionnaires 3 or 6 months after the intervention to examine the long term effects of their intervention.Sampling size can be another methodological concern for researches conducting TBIs. Two studies had a very small sample size (Mellalieu et al, 2006 5 participants McClure Foster, 199115 participants. Some studies have only used a slightly larger sized sample consisting of no more than 45 participants (Cogan Petrie, 1996 Voight Callaghan, 2001 Stevens Bloom, 2003 Stevens Bloom, 2002). Only 2 studies have used relatively large sample sizes Senecal et al, (2008) (n=86) Prappevessis et al, (1996) (n=137). Nevertheless, all studies have rep orted sufficient details such as gender, age, sport and team ability (Cogan Petrie, 1996 Voight Callaghan, 2001 Stevens Bloom, 2003 Stevens Bloom, 2002 McClure Foster, 1991 Mellalieu et al, 2006 Senecal et al, 2008 Prapavessis et al, 1996) However, some of the characteristics reported in the studies can be vague. Many studies have failed to state appropriate details, such as race (Voight Callaghan, 2001 Prapevessis et al, 1996 Senecal et al, 2008 McClure Foster, 1991 Stevens Bloom, 2002 Mellalieu et al, 2006). Furthermore, the majority of studies also seem to be generalized to similar populations. For example, the majority of studies were conducted on females (Voight Callaghan, 2001 Senecal et al, 2008 McClure Foster, 1991 Cogan Petrie, 1996 Steven Bloom, 2003 Stevens Bloom, 2002), on ages ranging between 18-24 (Voight Callaghan, 2001 McClure Foster, 1991 Cogan Petrie, 1996 Steven Bloom, 2003 Mellalieu et al, 2006) and on high school or university teams (Cogan Petrie, 1996 Steven Bloom, 2003 McClure Foster, 1991 Senecal et al, 2008). In addition, the studies that indicated the race of the subjects were predominately on Caucasians (Cogan Petrie, 1996 Steven Bloom, 2003). As these studies are on similar populations the generalizability of these interventions is limited. Therefore, the results are difficult to apply to a wide range of sports teams, as member characteristics such as age, gender, race and ability can vary greatly per team.Previous studies on sport teams have had the coach/manager as the main facilitator of the intervention, working with the intervention specialist. As a result, Some TBIs have taken a more validating approach (Prappevessis et al, 1996) or used a combination of indirect and direct models (Steven Bloom, 2003 Cogan Petrie, 1996 Mellalieu et al, 2006). However, Brawley Paskevich (1997) identified indirect models to have weaknesses. The authors explain that coaches/managers may not be capable of undertaking a TBI a s they do not have the knowledge, time and commitment to make it successful. On the other hand, direct models have the advantage of often allowing the intervention specialist to work directly with the participants. In addition, the team members become more involved in the decision making process during the intervention. Bloom, (1996), suggested the involvement of the athletes is a key factor in improving team performance. 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